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Alchemy (page 2)
From the skills of Egyptian artisans,
Eastern mysticism, and the Aristotelian theory of composition of matter,
alchemical science blossomed up. Aristotle advocated that all matter was
composed of four elements: water, earth, fire, and air. According to his
theory, different materials found in nature had different ratios of these
four elements. Therefore, by appropriate treatment, a base metal could be
altered
into gold.
These ideas were further strengthened by astrological
speculations from
Mesopotamia. Astrologers believed that celestial bodies — the Sun, the
Moon,
and the stars — had a profound influence on the activities of men. Thus, for alchemists to
transmute metals efficiently and effectively, the heavenly bodies had to be in an
auspicious configuration.
In the 8th and 9th centuries alchemical
lore from China,
Greece
and Alexandria came into the Arab world. Their alchemists changed the
Aristotelian concept of four elements by postulating that all metals were
composed of two immediate components: sulfur and mercury. They additionally
embraced the Chinese alchemists' concept of the
Philosopher's Stone
— a
medicine that could transform a 'sick' (base) metal into gold and
additionally perform as an
Elixir of Life.
Arab alchemical treatises, such as those by Persian physicians
al-Razi and
Avicenna,
became very popular
during the Middle Ages. With the fall of the
Roman empire,
Greek philosophy and science declined in Western Europe. Nonetheless, close contact with Arabs
in Spain and Sicily in the 11th and 12th centuries, resulted in renewed interest
in Arabic philosophers, physicians, and scientists.
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In this painting, The
Discovery of Phosphorus (Derby Art Gallery), the
dazzled alchemist kneels awestruck before the luminous
spectacle of phosphorus within his receiver. |
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As a consequence, Greek manuscripts were translated
indirectly through Syriac and Arabic into Latin and European languages. Treatises of such scholars as
Arnold of Villanova, Roger Bacon, and
Albertus
Magnus, were included with alchemical explanations of the
nature of matter. These treatises contained not purely mystical theory, but also
important practical recipes. Arnold of Villanova described distillation of wine; Roger
Bacon gave a formula for gunpowder and instructions for constructing a telescope.
The alchemist became a familiar figure on the
European scene, and kings and nobles habitually endorsed them in the hope
of increasing their assets. Often, however, alchemists who failed in their attempts
to produce the promised riches lost their lives. In time, alchemy fell into disrepute
because of the nefarious character of its practitioners. It is said that
Frederick of Wurzburg maintained special gallows,
gold painted, for hanging failed or dishonest alchemists. The inscription on a gibbet where an
alchemist was once hanged read:
"Once I knew how to fix mercury, and now I am
fixed myself."
Marco Bragadino, another
unfortunate would-be puffer, was hanged by the Elector of Bavaria;
William de Krohnemann was dangled by the Margrave of Bayreuth,
and
David Benther killed himself
before he could be executed by
Elector Augustus of Saxony.
Marie Ziglerin, one of the few female alchemists,
end up burned at the
stake by
Duke Julius of Brunswick.
The typical alchemist's laboratory was a dark, cluttered place that stank of
smoke and mysterious chemicals. In order to save money and avoid outside
interference, many alchemists worked at home. Some settled in the kitchen,
to take advantage of the cooking fire. Others chose the attic or cellar,
where late-night activity was less likely to be noticed by nosy neighbors.
These small, makeshift laboratories were
frequently packed with a mucky mess of instruments, manuscripts, skulls,
animal specimens, and an assortment of mystical objects. Most alchemists
also made room for an altar — an aid they considered essential to the
spiritual aspects of their pursuit.
In these surroundings that owed more to
mysticism than to
science, adepts searching for the
philosophers' stone inadvertently laid much of the ground work for the
later discipline of applied chemistry. Alchemists were the first to isolate
a number of chemicals, from phosphorus to hydrochloric acid, and they also
developed new equipment and methods for distilling fluids, analyzing metals,
and controlling chemical reactions. Some of their devices and techniques are
still used at the present day.
"A perfect Master ye may call him true,
that knoweth his Heates both high and lowe," wrote Thomas Norton, a 15th
century British alchemist. Heat was the essential requirement of nearly
every alchemical process, from distilling dew to smelting lead. To reach and
sustain just the right temperature, alchemists experimented with a number of
furnaces, water baths, and other heating apparatus. Some self-regulating
furnaces could stay hot without tending by the use of ingenious draft
systems, but these were rare. Given an typical alchemist's limited funds,
furnaces could be as crude as a household fire vigorously tended, as shown
in Adriaen van Ostade's Alchemist, painted in 1667 (above right).
From the 15th to the
17th century, alchemical symbolism and allegory became increasingly
complicated.
Practical alchemists turned from attempting to make gold toward preparing medicinal
formulas. A
leader in this movement was Philipus Aureolus Paracelsus, the first in Europe to mention zinc and to use the word alcohol to refer to the
spirit of wine. After the Scientific Revolution in the 17th century, alchemy became
marginalized and interest in transmutation became limited to
astrologers and
numerologists.
Nonetheless, the chemical facts that had been accumulated by alchemists as
a by-product of their search for gold became the foundation for modern chemistry. In the West,
interest in the spiritual dimension of alchemy was reawakened in the mid-20th century
through the works of the psychiatrist Carl C. Jung
on gnostic and alchemical spiritualism.
But the Renaissance was undoubtedly alchemy's golden age. The surge of
rebirth and renewal washing over Europe brought remarkable innovations to
all the arts and sciences. With the Protestant Reformation that began early
in the 16th century, religion as well experienced mighty changes. Alchemy —
part science, part art, part religion — moved swiftly on the growth of
innovation, particularly as it applied to the everlasting human quest for
gold.
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